Definition of Pogrom

Definition of Pogrom A pogrom is an organized attack upon a population, characterized by looting, destruction of property, rape, and murder. The word is derived from a Russian word meaning to commit mayhem, and it came into the English language to refer specifically to attacks perpetrated by Christians upon Jewish population centers in Russia. The first pogroms occurred in Ukraine in 1881, following the assassination of Czar Alexander II by a revolutionary group, Narodnaya Volya, on March 13, 1881. Rumors circulated that the murder of the Czar had been planned and executed by Jews. At the end of April, 1881, the initial outbreak of violence occurred in the Ukrainian town of Kirovograd (which was then known as Yelizavetgrad). The pogroms quickly spread to about 30 other towns and villages. There were more attacks during that summer, and then the violence subsided. The following winter, pogroms began anew in other areas of Russia, and murders of entire Jewish families were not uncommon. The attackers at times were very organized, even arriving by train to unleash violence. And the local authorities tended to stand aside and let acts of arson, murder, and rape occur without punishment. By the summer of 1882 the Russian government tried to crack down on local governors to stop the violence, and again the pogroms stopped for a time. However, they began again, and in 1883 and 1884 new pogroms occurred. The authorities finally prosecuted a number of rioters and sentenced them to prison, and the first wave of pogroms came to an end. The pogroms of the 1880s had a profound effect, as it encouraged many Russian Jews to leave the country and seek a life in the New World. Immigration to the United States by Russian Jews accelerated, which had an effect on American society, and particularly New York City, which received most of the new immigrants. The poet Emma Lazarus, who had been born in New York City, volunteered to help the Russian Jews fleeing the pogroms in Russia. The experience of Emma Lazarus with the refugees from the pogroms housed at Ward’s Island, the immigration station in New York City, helped inspire her famous poem â€Å"The New Colossus,† which was written in honor of the Statue of Liberty. The poem made the Statue of Liberty a symbol of immigration. Later Pogroms A second wave of pogroms occurred from 1903 to 1906, and a third wave from 1917 to 1921. The pogroms in the early years of the 20th century are generally linked to political unrest in the Russian empire. As a way to suppressing revolutionary sentiment, the government sought to blame Jews for unrest and incite violence against their communities.  Mobs, fomented by a group known as Black Hundreds, attacked Jewish villages, burning houses and causing widespread death and destruction. As part of the campaign to spread chaos and terror, propaganda was published and spread widely. A major component of the disinformation campaign, a notorious text titled  Protocols of the Elders of Zion  was published. The book was a fabricated document which purported to be a legitimate discovered text advancing a plan for Jews to achieve total domination of the world by means of deception. The use of an elaborate forgery to inflame hatred against Jews marked a dangerous new turning point in the use of propaganda. The text helped to create an atmosphere of violence in which thousands died or fled the country. And the use of the fabricated text did not end with the pogroms of 1903-1906. Later anti-Semites, including the American industrialist Henry Ford, spread the book and used it to fuel their own discriminatory practices. The Nazis, of course, made extensive use of propaganda designed to turn the European public against the Jews. Another wave of Russian pogroms took place roughly concurrent with World War I, from 1917 to 1921. The pogroms began as attacks on Jewish villages by deserters from the Russian army, but with the Bolshevik Revolution came new attacks on Jewish population centers. It was estimated that 60,000 Jews may have perished before the violence subsided. The occurrence of pogroms helped propel the concept of Zionism. Young Jews in Europe argued that assimilation into European society was constantly at risk, and the Jews in Europe should begin advocating for a homeland.

Queen Angelfish Facts

Queen Angelfish Facts The queen angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris) is one of the most striking fishes found in the western Atlantic coral reefs. Their large flat bodies are of a brilliant blue color with vivid yellow-accented scales and a bright yellow tail. They are often confused with blue angelfish (H. bermudensis), but the queens are distinguished by a navy blue patch located above the eyes at the center of the head, which is freckled with light blue spots and resembles a crown. Fast Facts: Queen Angelfish Scientific Name: Holacanthus ciliaris  Common Names: Queen Angelfish, Angelfish, Golden Angelfish, Queen Angel, Yellow AngelfishBasic Animal Group: FishSize: 12–17.8 inchesWeight: Up to 3.5 poundsLifespan: 15 yearsDiet: OmnivoreHabitat: Western Atlantic ocean coral reefs, from Bermuda to central BrazilPopulation: UnknownConservation Status: Least Concern Description The body of the queen angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris) is highly compressed and its head is blunt and rounded. It has one long dorsal fin along its top, dorsal and anal fins, and a range of between 9–15 spines and soft rays. Blue and queen angelfish look even more alike as juveniles, and the two species can and do interbreed. Researchers believe that the entire population in Bermuda may consist of hybrid blue and queen angels.   On average, queen angelfish grow to around 12 inches in length, but they can grow up to 17.8 inches and weigh up to 3.5 pounds. They have small mouths with slender brush-like teeth in a narrow band that can be protruded outward. Although they are primarily blue and yellow, different regional populations sometimes have different color variations, such as occasional gold coloration, and black and orange blotches. Queen angelfish are of the Perciformes order, the Pomacanthidae family, and the Holacanthus genus.   Colorful Queen Angelfish, Bonaire, Caribbean Netherlands. Terry Moore / Stocktrek Images / Getty Images Habitat and Distribution A subtropical island species, queen angelfish are found in coral reefs on coasts or surrounding offshore islands. The queen is most abundant in the Caribbean Sea, but can be found in tropical western Atlantic waters ranging from Bermuda to Brazil and from Panama to the Windward Islands. It occurs at depths between 3.5–230 feet below the surface.   The fish do not migrate, but they are most active during the day and are most commonly found near the bottom of coral reef habitats, from the nearshore shallows down to the deepest part of the reef where limited light inhibits coral growth. They are predominantly marine but can adapt to different salinities as needed, which is why the species is often seen in marine aquariums.   Diet and Behavior Queen angelfish are omnivores, and although they prefer sponges, algae, and bryozoans, they also eat jellyfish, corals, plankton, and tunicates. Apart from the courtship period, they are generally observed moving in pairs or singly year-round: some research suggests they are pair-bonded and monogamous.   During the juvenile stage (when they are about 1/2 inch long), queen angelfish larvae set up cleaning stations, where larger fish approach and allow the much smaller angelfish larvae to clean them of ectoparasites. Hawksbill sea turtle swimming over coral reef with stove-pipe sponge and a Queen angelfish, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, Caribbean, Atlantic Ocean. Georgette Douwma / Photographers Choice / Getty Images Plus Reproduction and Offspring   During the winter courtship periods, queen angelfish are found in larger groups known as harems. These pre-spawning groups are typically made up of a ratio of one male to four females, and the males court the females. Males flaunt their pectoral fins and the females respond by swimming upward. The male uses his snout to make contact with her genital area, and then they touch bellies and swim upward together to a depth of about 60 feet, where the male releases sperm and the female releases eggs into the water column.   Females can produce anywhere from 25,000 to 75,000 transparent and buoyant eggs during one evening event; and as many as 10 million per spawning cycle. After spawning, there is no further parental involvement. The eggs are fertilized in the water column and then hatch out within 15–20 hours, as larvae lacking working eyes, fins or gut. The larvae live on yolk sacs for 48 hours, after which they have developed enough to begin feeding on plankton. They grow rapidly and after three to four weeks they reach about one-half inch long when they sink to the bottom and live in coral and finger sponge colonies. Juvenile Queen angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris in the Caribbean. Damocean / iStock / Getty Images Plus Conservation Status   Queen angelfish are classed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. They are used as part of the commercial aquarium trade. They are not typically a food fish, in part because they are associated with the phenomenon of ciguatera poisoning which is caused by fish eating other toxic creatures and keeping a reservoir of toxins which may be passed on to human consumers.  Ã‚   Sources Feeley, M. W., O. J. Luiz jr, and N. Zurcher. Colour Morph of a Probable Queen Angelfish . Journal of Fish Biology 74.10 (2009): 2415–21. Holacanthus ciliaris from Dry Tortugas, FloridaPatton, Casey and Cathleen Bester. Queen Angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris. Discover Fishes, Florida Museum.  Pyle, R., R. Myers, L.A. Rocha, and M.T. Craig. Holacanthus ciliaris. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: e.T165883A6156566, 2010.  Reis, Fernanda, et al. Diet of the Queen Angelfish Holacanthus Ciliaris (Pomacanthidae) in So Pedro E So Paulo Archipelago, Brazil. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 93.2 (2013): 453-60. Shah, Saara. Holacanthus ciliaris (Queen Angelfish).  The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago. University of the West Indies, 2015